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Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis,
N., & Duda, J.L. (2007). Adherence and well-being in overweight and
obese patients referred to an exercise on prescription scheme: A self-determination
theory perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 722–740.
Objectives: Based on Self-Determination
Theory [SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination
in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press], this study examined differences
in perceived autonomy support, psychological need satisfaction, self-determined
motivation, exercise behaviour, exercise-related cognitions and general
well-being, between overweight/obese individuals who demonstrated greater
adherence to an exercise on prescription programme and those who adhered
less. In addition, this study explored the motivational sequence embedded
in SDT by testing autonomy support as a predictor of psychological need
satisfaction, autonomy support and psychological need satisfaction as
predictors of the motivational regulations, and autonomy support, psychological
need satisfaction and the motivational regulations as predictors of behavioural,
cognitive and well-being outcomes.
Method: Before commencing, at 1-month, and upon terminating
a 3-month exercise on prescription programme, overweight/obese individuals
(N 49; M Body Mass Index 38.75) completed a multisection questionnaire
tapping all aforementioned variables. Participants’ adherence to
the scheme was assessed using attendance records.
Results: Multilevel regression analyses revealed that,
at the end of the exercise prescription, those individuals who adhered
more reported more self-efficacy to overcome barriers to exercise versus
those who adhered less. In addition, those individuals who showed greater
adherence demonstrated an increase in relatedness need satisfaction over
time. For the whole sample, need satisfaction predicted self-determined
regulation, and collectively, these constructs corresponded to adaptive
exercise related outcomes and general well-being throughout the programme.
Conclusions: Based on the results it appears that exercise
on prescription schemes would benefit fromcreating services that foster
self-determination via the facilitation of psychological need satisfaction.
Markland, D. (1999).
Self-determination moderates the effects of perceived competence on intrinsic
motivation in an exercise setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,
21, 350-360.
According to E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan's (1985) self-determination
theory, perceptions of self-determination (SD) moderate the effects of
perceived competence on intrinsic motivation (IM), with perceived competence
only positively influencing IM under conditions of some SD. R. J. Vallerand's
(1997) hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation suggests
that SD and competence have only independent effects on IM. The aim of
this study was to test these competing models. 146 women aerobics Ss (mean
age 31.51 yrs) completed measures of SD, perceived competence, and IM
for exercise. Moderated hierarchical regression revealed a significant
interactive effect of SD and perceived competence. A plot of the regression
of IM on perceived competence under conditions of high and low SD, however,
showed that the interaction did not take the expected form. Variations
in perceived competence positively influenced IM only under conditions
of low SD. This suggests that it is particularly important to foster perceptions
of competence among individuals low in SD.
Markland, D. & Hardy,
L. (1997). On the factorial and construct validity of the Intrinsic Motivation
Inventory: Conceptual and operational concerns. Research Quarterly
for Exercise and Sport, 68, 20-32.
The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) has been gaining
acceptance in the sport and exercise domain since the publication of papers
by McAuley, Duncan and Tammen (1989) and McAuley, Wraith and Duncan (1991)
which reported confirmatory support for the factorial validity of a hierarchical
model of intrinsic motivation. This paper argues that the results of these
studies did not conclusively support the hierarchical model and that the
model did not accurately reflect the tenets of cognitive evaluation theory
(CET: Deci & Ryan, 1985) from which the IMI is drawn. It is also argued
that a measure of perceived locus of causality is required to properly
model intrinsic motivation. The development of a perceived locus of causality
for exercise scale is described and alternative models, in which perceived
competence and perceived locus of causality are held to have causal influences
on intrinsic motivation, are compared with an oblique confirmatory factor
analytic model in which the constructs are held at the same conceptual
level. Structural equation modelling showed support for a causal model
in which perceived locus of causality mediates the effects of perceived
competence on pressure-tension, interest-enjoyment, and effort-importance.
It is argued that conceptual and operational problems with the IMI as
currently used should be addressed before it becomes established as the
instrument of choice for assessing levels of intrinsic motivation.
Markland,
D. & Tobin, V.J. (2010). Need support and behavioural regulations
for exercise among exercise referral scheme clients: The mediating role
of psychological need satisfaction. Psychology of Sport and Exercise,
11, 91-99.
Objectives: Based on predictions drawn
from self-determination theory (SDT: Deci & Ryan, 2000, The‘‘what’’
and the ‘‘why’’ of goal pursuits: Human needs
and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268)
this study examined specific differential mediating effects of psychological
need satisfaction in the relation between support for psychological needs
and the internalization of behavioural regulation for exercise.
Methods: 133 former female exercise referral scheme clients
(mean age 54.51) completed measures of need support provided by their
exercise practitioners, satisfaction of the psychological needs for autonomy,
competence and relatedness, the latter including measures of interpersonal
relatedness and social assimilation, and behavioural regulations for exercise.
Results: Multiple mediator regression analyses showed
that when need support promoted autonomy andsocial assimilation, individuals
were less amotivated and less externally regulated. Fostering personal
relatedness whilst not fostering autonomy was associated with greater
introjected regulation but promoting social assimilation served to partially
offset this negative effect. When need support facilitated autonomy, competence
and personal relatedness, identified regulation was promoted. Satisfaction
of autonomy and competence needs mediated the association between need
support and intrinsic regulation.
Conclusions: The results support the central role afforded
to autonomy in SDT and indicate that autonomy does not have to be actively
undermined in order to forestall the internalization process. In practical
terms, in addition to promoting autonomy and competence, exercise practitioners
should help referral schemes clients to assimilate into the social environment
of exercise facilities as well as ensuring that they receive more direct
interpersonal support.
Silva, M.N., Markland,
D.A., Minderico, C.S., Vieira, P.N., Castro, M.M., Coutinho, S.R., Santos,
T.C., Matos. M.G., Sardinha, L.B. & Teixeira, P.J. (2008). A randomized
controlled trial to evaluate Self-Determination Theory for exercise adherence
and weight control: Rationale and intervention description. BMC Public
Health, 8, 234.
Background: Research
on the motivational model proposed by Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
provides theoretically sound insights into reasons why people adopt and
maintain exercise and other health behaviors, and allows for a meaningful
analysis of the motivational processes involved in behavioral self-regulation.
Although obesity is notoriously difficult to reverse and its recidivism
is high, adopting and maintaining a physically active lifestyle is arguably
the most effective strategy to counteract it in the long-term. The purposes
of this study are twofold: i) to describe a 3-year randomized controlled
trial (RCT) aimed at testing a novel obesity treatment program based on
SDT, and ii) to present the rationale behind SDT's utility in facilitating
and explaining health behavior change, especially physical activity/exercise,
during obesity treatment.
Methods: Study design, recruitment, inclusion criteria,
measurements, and a detailed description of the intervention (general
format, goals for the participants, intervention curriculum, and main
SDT strategies) are presented. The intervention consists of a 1-year group
behavioral program for overweight and moderately obese women, aged 25
to 50 (and pre-menopausal), recruited from the community at large through
media advertisement. Participants in the intervention group meet weekly
or bi-weekly with a multidisciplinary intervention team (30 2 h sessions
in total), and go through a program covering most topics considered critical
for successful weight control. These topics and especially their delivery
were adapted to comply with SDT and Motivational Interviewing guidelines.
Comparison group receive a general health education curriculum. After
the program, all subjects are follow-up for a period of 2 years.
Discussion: Results from this RCT will contribute to
a better understanding of how motivational characteristics, particularly
those related to physical activity/exercise behavioral self-regulation,
influence treatment success, while exploring the utility of Self-Determination
Theory for promoting health behavior change in the context of obesity.
Silva, M.N., Markland,
D.A., Vieira, P.N., Coutinho, S.R., Carraca, E.V., Palmeira, A.L., Minderico,
C.S., Matos. M.G., Sardinha, L.B. & Teixeira, P.J. (In press). Helping
overweight women become more active: Need support and motivational regulations
for different forms of physical activity. Psychology of Sport and
Exercise.
Objectives:
This study analyzed mechanisms by which a one-year obesity treatment intervention
based on self-determination theory (SDT) influenced physical activity
level and whether motivational predictors differed for structured vs.
lifestyle forms of physical activity.
Design: Randomized controlled trial lasting 1-year.
Method: Pre-menopausal overweight and obese women (n
= 239; 37.6 _ 7.1 y; 31.5 _ 4.1 kg/m2) participated in a group intervention
designed to increase physical activity and motivation, following SDT.
Partial least squares (PLS) latent variable modeling was used to test
a cross-sectional multiple-level mediation model comprising experimentally-manipulated
contextual need support, perceived need satisfaction, and motivational
regulations for two distinct forms of physical activity.
Results: The structural model explained a large amount
of variance (62%) for intrinsic motivation, and moderate amounts of variance
(16-25%) for the remaining regulations and exercise behaviors. Moderate
and vigorous exercise was positively influenced by intrinsic motivation
(p < .001) whereas lifestyle physical activity was not significantly
predicted by motivational regulations. Behavioral regulations were
influenced by perceived autonomy and perceived competence and both needs
were affected by contextual support from treatment climate (p < .001).
Conclusions: Results provide support for using the SDT
framework to understand physical activity motivational processes in the
context of weight management. Results also highlight structured and lifestyle
physical activity as being promoted by different processes as a result
of the intervention: more direct effects on lifestyle physical activity
and indirect effects on structured exercise, mediated by intrinsic motivation.
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